In some communities, schools have been built on relatively undesirable land, such as landfill sites like Love Canal. Schools are often located on old industrial sites or near highways, resulting in exposure to auto emissions and air pollution . Many school buildings are old and poorly maintained, leading to exposures to air pollutants, radon, asbestos, pesticides, and lead . The U.S. General Accounting Office reported that 20 percent of primary and secondary schools had indoor air quality problems; more than half had environmental pollutant or building ventilation problems that could affect air quality (U.S. General Accounting Office, 1995). Radon above the EPA’s action level was found in 2.7 percent of schools surveyed during the 1990–1991 school year (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992).

Asbestos, used extensively in schools until the 1970s, was still present in more than 8,500 schools in 1980, potentially exposing over 3 million students (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1987). Children also are a demographic subgroup prone to infectious diseases because of their exploratory behavior, lack of prior exposure to most infectious agents, and association with other children. Substantial advances in vaccines have reduced rates of many infectious diseases during the past decades. Some water pollutants are biological agents, some are chemical agents, and some are radionuclides . Biological agents generally come from fecal contamination and include such bacteria as salmonella and E.

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coli, such viruses as hepatitis A and rotavirus, and such parasites as Cryptosporidium parvum. Chemicals in water include such metals as lead, mercury, and arsenic, such natural toxins as Pfiesteria toxins, organic chemicals including pesticides, PCBs, trichloroethylene, and chlorination by-products, such inorganic ions as nitrates, and such radionuclides as radon. Systems affected by these contaminants include the central nervous system, the gastrointestinal system, and the hematological system. In addition, children are both more highly exposed and more susceptible to the contaminants found in water. For example, lead in drinking water was found to be the cause of lead poisoning in several infants whose blood lead exceeded 10 mcg/dl (Baum and Shannon, 1997; Shannon and Graef, 1992).

Some health policies attempt to change youth behaviors that are thought to affect health. An example is the requirement for regular school attendance, which may both reflect current health and exert effects on a given child’s likelihood of future health. Body burdens can improve or harm health, based on their biological characteristics and presence during certain periods of development. Relatively lower body burdens of organic mercury will reduce cognitive development in young children more than at older ages (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2000c; National Research Council, 2000). A child’s biology determines how physiological processes unfold and how organ systems adapt to outside influences.

• The poor are more likely to suffer illness during their life span because they have more exposure to risk factors.
• The commission recommended policies and interventions according to ten important topics.
• In 1998, the WHO established the Commission on the Social Determinants of Health.
• Comprehensive, high-quality center-based early education has been demonstrated to improve a range of educational outcomes .

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The built environment plays a major role in promoting or hampering physical activity in children. Schools, parks, and even sidewalks that are integrated into the design of a community can encourage physical activity. For example, physical activity among youth increases when schools offer such facilities as basketball courts and sports fields . These strategies all relate directly to features of the built environment. School-age children spend 35 to 50 hours per week in and around school buildings.

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Heavy drinking during pregnancy is the cause of fetal alcohol syndrome , the leading known cause of mental retardation (Abel and Sokol, 1987; Sokol, Delaney-Black, and Nordstrom, 2003). Conservative estimates place the incidence of FAS at 0.33/1,000 live births . More common effects include alcohol-related birth defects, alcohol-related neuro-developmental defects, and subtle effects on a variety of behavioral, educational, and psychological tests resulting from low testosterone supplements to moderate levels of drinking during pregnancy . Available evidence suggests that good communication skills and the development of positive relationships with the clinical team may offset the effects of negative emotions on health care adherence (Buston, 2002; García and Weisz, 2002; Shaw, 2001). Often these health behaviors are considered proxies for health, even though they may not necessarily constitute health per se.